KOMUNITAS CAPOEIRA

BELA DIRI SAMBIL MENDENGARKAN MUSIK

Oleh:

Putri Wahyu Handayani

292008202

FAKULTAS KEGURUAN ILMU PENDIDIKAN

S1 PENDIDIKAN GURU SEKOLAH DASAR

UNIVERSITAS KRISTEN SATYA WACANA

SALATIGA

2012

PRAKATA

            Puji syukur penulis panjatkan kepada Tuhan Yang Maha Esa atas rahmat dan karunia yang telah diberikan baik itu kepandaian, kelancaran, serta kesehatan sehingga penulis dapat menyelesaikan proses persiapan, pelaksanaan, dan pembuatan makalah ini.

            Penulis menyadari bahwa dalam penulisan makalah ini tidak semua dapat berjalan dengan baik dan lancar tanpa dukungan dan bimbingan oleh pihak-pihak yang sangat berperan penting membantu semua kegiatan yang dilakukan oleh penulis. Oleh karena itu, penulis ingin mengucapkan terima kasih yang sangat tulus kepada ;

1.      Bapak Steafanus, selaku dosen yang mengampu mata kuliah Bahasa Indonesia.

2.      Teman-teman semua yang telah memberikan dukungannya dan masukan.

3.      Orang tua yang telah memberikan dukungan baik moril maupun materiil.

Penulis menyadari bahwa masih banyak sekali kekurangan dalam penyusunan makalah ini. Oleh karena itu penulis sangat mengharapkan adanya kritik dan saran yang bersifat membangun dari berbagai pihak untuk kesempurnaan laporan ini.

                                                                  Salatiga, 5 April 2012

                                                                        Penulis

                                                                        Putri Wahyu Handayani

                                                                                                     

1.1. Latar belakang Ikut Komunitas Capoeira

Dulu ketika pertama kali saya melihat gerakan capoeira saya merasa aneh dan berpikir apakah kalau melakukan gerakan itu tubuhnya tidak sakit saya juga mersa takut ketika melihat gerakannya. Akan tetapi setelah saya tanya dengan teman-teman saya yang ikut dalam komunitas ini rasa takut saya menjadi hilang karena kata teman-temanku dengan latihan yang rutin dan melakukan gerakan yang benar maka gerakan yang terlihat sulit dan menakutkan akan menjadi mudah karena kita terbiasa.

Saya sebenarnya penasaran dengan tarian capoeira karena gerakannya yang lain dari pada tarian yang lain. Menurut saya gerakan dalam capoeira sangat unik dan menyenangkan karena capoeira merupakan tarian sekaligus olahraga. Lagipula apabila sudah bisa gerakan dalam capoeira biasanya akan lebih mudah melakukan gerakan tarian yang lain tetapi tarian yang modern karena gerakan mirip.

Para peserta dalam komunitas ini sangat terbuka dan mau dengan senang hati mengajari gerakan kepada peserta lain atau yang baru masuk dalam komunitas ini dengan senang hati dan telaten. Semua anak satu kos saya kecuali saya ikut dalam komunitas ini jadi saya dengan mudah mengikuti komunitas ini. Para anak-anak dalam komunitas ini sangat terbuka dan menerima saya untuk ikut dalam komunitas ini. Setiap hari pada  malam hari setelah latihan kapoera di kampus mereka selalu latihan dikos bareng- bareng dan mempraktekan gerakan yang tadi sudah dilakukan. Setelah mereka selesai latihan mereka disarankan untuk minum susu supaya energi yang keluar pada saat melakukan gerakan capoeira dapat digantikan oleh susu. Jadi menurut saya dengan melakukan gerakan dalam capoeira juga bisa membuat tubuh sehat karena dengan melaluakan gerakan capoeira maka kita juga sudah berolahraga dan berlatih bela diri juga.

Teman-teman saya biasanya latihan capoeira pada hari senin di student center sampingnya BU Universitas Satya Wacana pada jam 16.00-18.00 dan latihan lagu capoeira tiap hari sabtu jam 16.00 didepan korem Salatiga.

Saya belum pernah melakukan gerakan capoeira dan melihat gerakan capoeira sebelumnya. Di daerah tempat tinggal saya di Temanggung belum pernah saya menjumpai tarian capoeira tapi semenjak saya kuliah di UKSW saya baru tahu kalau ada tarian yang dinakaman capoeira. Saya benar-benar mendapatkan pengalaman yang berbeda karena dulu tidak tahu tarian capoeira sekarang menjadi tahu.

1.2.Sejarah Capoira

Sebearnya, capoira itu nama burung yang sangat lincah. Nama latinnya, Odontophorus Capoira Spix. Burung ini hidup dipedalaman hutan Brasil. Pada abad 15-16, pohon-pohon dihutan tropis Brasil ditebang oleh penguasa Portugiss. Yang disuruh menebang adalah jutaan budak dari Afrika. Akibatnya, burung-burung itu semakin susah dicari karena tempat tinggalnya berkurang. Para budak itu sebenarnya ingin memberontak pada penguasa Portugal namun karena dilarang berlatinh bela diri, mereka pun lantas mencari akal. Mereka menggabungkan gerakan bela diri, tarian, dan nyanyian dengan irama musik yang enak didiengar. Gerakan bela diri ini kemudian dinamakan capoeira. Bela diri capoeira masuk ke Indonesia sejak tahun 1999 namun olahraga ini resmi pada bulan Juli 2003 dengan dibukanya tempat latihan capoeira yang merupakan cabang dari perkumpulan Capoira Internasional, Associacao Grupo Bahia, Mestre Cicatriz – Mastre Cabesa Inteernational.

Di Indonesia, baru ada dua tempat latihan capoeira. Di Jl. Panglima Polim 2 No 2, Jakarta Selatan, dan di Wisma Dharmala Sakti, Jl. Jendral Sudirman Kav. 32, Lantai M2, Jakarta Pusat. Dua-duanya memang di Jakarta.

1.3. Capoeira Cocok Untuk Kita

Olah raga capoeira memadukan seni dan olahraga. Bayangkan, dalam setiap latihannya, kita selalu didiringi musik samba yang memakai alat musik tamorin dan bongo. Alunan musik ini diharapkan bisa memperkuat jiwa seseorang sehingga dia lebih peka terhadap lingkungannya. Kalau berkapoeira, seluruh anggota badan kita akan bergerak. Mulai dari kaki, tangan, badan, hingga kepala. Kata Pak Paul Andrew Stevens, kepala perwakilan capoeeira cocok untuk anak-anak. Soalnya, kita yang anak-anak ini biasanya tidak takut menendang, meloncat, bahkan jungkir balik. Sehigga kita akan lebih mudah berlatih. Bagi teman-teman yang sangat aktif sebaiknya ikut bercapoeira, karena energi kita bisa tersalurkan melalui gerakan-gerakan capoeira.

Seperti karate, capoeira juga mempunyai tingkatan dalam berlatih mempunyai tingkatan dalam berlatih. Jumlahnya ada dua puluh tingkat. Dicapoeira juga ada nermacam-macam sabuk untuk membedakan tingkatan itu. Sabuk bagi pemula bewarna hijau, sedangkan yang paling tinggi berwarna putih.

Wana hijau melambangkan bibit tanaman yang memiliki masa depan atau tunas yang akan menggantikan yang telah tua. Sedangkan yang putih, melambangkan orang yang telah mampu mengendalikan emosi, berwibawa, bijaksana,dan tenang.

1.4. Capoeira Menghabiskan 1200 Kalori Per-jam

      Meskipun gerakan capoeira lincah dan menguras banyak tenaga, namun membuat badan kita menjadi lebih segar. Menurut hasil penelitian, seorang atlet capoeira yang berlatih selama satu jam menghabiskan 1200 kalori atau sama dengan kalori segelas susu. Kalau setiap kali latihan menghabiskan waktu dua jam, berarti seorang atlet capoeira akan menghabiskan 2400 kalori.

Untuk mengembalikan kalori yang terbuang setelah latihan, sebaiknya segera diganti dengan makan atau minum susu. Kalau belajar capoeira, kita tidak hanya berlatih main musik dengan tamborin dan bongo. Bahkan, belajar menyanyikan lagu Brazil.

                                                    LAMPIRAN

 

Pelacur di Jerman.

Pelacuran atau prostitusi adalah penjualan jasa seksual, seperti seks oral atau hubungan seks, untuk uang. Seseorang yang menjual jasa seksual disebut pelacur, yang kini sering disebut dengan istilah pekerja seks komersial (PSK). Dalam pengertian yang lebih luas, seseorang yang menjual jasanya untuk hal yang dianggap tak berharga juga disebut melacurkan dirinya sendiri, misalnya seorang musisi yang bertalenta tinggi namun lebih banyak memainkan lagu-lagu komersil. Di Indonesia pelacur sebagai pelaku pelacuran sering disebut sebagai sundal atau sundel.

Di kalangan masyarakat Indonesia, pelacuran dipandang negatif, dan mereka yang menyewakan atau menjual tubuhnya sering dianggap sebagai sampah masyarakat. Ada pula pihak yang menganggap pelacuran sebagai sesuatu yang buruk, malah jahat, namun toh dibutuhkan (evil necessity). Pandangan ini didasarkan pada anggapan bahwa kehadiran pelacuran bisa menyalurkan nafsu seksual pihak yang membutuhkannya (biasanya kaum laki-laki); tanpa penyaluran itu, dikhawatirkan para pelanggannya justru akan menyerang dan memperkosa kaum perempuan baik-baik.

Salah seorang yang mengemukakan pandangan seperti itu adalah Augustinus dari Hippo (354-430), seorang bapak gereja. Ia mengatakan bahwa pelacuran itu ibarat "selokan yang menyalurkan air yang busuk dari kota demi menjaga kesehatan warga kotanya." Pandangan yang negatif terhadap pelacur seringkali didasarkan pada standar ganda, karena umumnya para pelanggannya tidak dikenai stigma demikian.

transgender

Transgender

Is a general term applied to a variety of individuals, behaviors, and groups involving tendencies to vary from culturally conventional gender roles.

Transgender is the state of one's "gender identity" (self-identification as woman, man, neither or both) not matching one's "assigned sex" (identification by others as male, female or intersex based on physical/genetic sex). "Transgender" does not imply any specific form of sexual orientation; transgender people may identify as heterosexual, homosexual, bisexual, pansexual, polysexual, or asexual; some may consider conventional sexual orientation labels inadequate or inapplicable to them. The precise definition for transgender remains in flux, but includes:

• "Of, relating to, or designating a person whose identity does not conform unambiguously to conventional notions of male or female gender roles, but combines or moves between these.
• "People who were assigned a sex, usually at birth and based on their genitals, but who feel that this is a false or incomplete description of themselves."
• "Non-identification with, or non-presentation as, the sex (and assumed gender) one was assigned at birth."

A transgender individual may have characteristics that are normally associated with a particular gender, identify elsewhere on the traditional gender continuum, or exist outside of it as "other", "agender", "Genderqueer", or "third gender". Transgender people may also identify as bigender, or along several places on either the traditional transgender continuum, or the more encompassing continuums which have been developed in response to the significantly more detailed studies done in recent years

Evolution of the term transgender

The term transgender (TG) was popularised in the 1970s (but implied in the 1960s) describing people who wanted to live cross-gender without sex reassignment surgery In the 1980s the term was expanded to an umbrella term, and became popular as a means of uniting all those whose gender identity did not mesh with their gender assigned at birth.

In the 1990s, the term took on a political dimension as an alliance covering all who have at some point not conformed to gender norms, and the term became used to question the validity of those norms or pursue equal rights and anti-discrimination legislation, leading to its widespread usage in the media, academic world and law The term continues to evolve.

Transgender vs. transsexual

Billy Tipton was born in 1914. He began living as a man full-time by 1940 at age 26, had a career as a jazz and swing pianist and entertainer, a common law marriage (unregistered but publicly accepted), and three sons by adoption. He was discovered to have been female-bodied after he died in 1989 due to a hemorrhaging ulcer (that he refused to have treated). Like many female-to-male transsexuals of his day he did not have genital surgery.

The word transsexual, unlike the word transgender, originated in the medical and psychological communities. It was defined by Harry Benjamin in his seminal book The Transsexual Phenomenon. In particular he defined transsexuals on a scale called the "Benjamin Scale", which defines a few different levels of intensity of transsexualism; these are listed as "Transsexual (nonsurgical)", "True Transsexual (moderate intensity)", and "True Transsexual (high intensity)" Many transsexuals believe that to be a true transsexual, a person needs to have a desire for surgery. However, it is notable that Benjamin's moderate intensity "true transsexual" needs either estrogen or testosterone medication as a "substitute for or preliminary to operation." There also exist people who have had sexual reassignment surgery (SRS), but do not meet the definition of a transsexual, such as Gregory Hemingway, while other people do not desire SRS, yet clearly meet Dr. Benjamin's definition of a "true transsexual", such as Miriam Rivera.

In addition to the larger categories of transgender and transsexual, there is a wide range of gender expressions and identities which are contrary to the mainstream male-female binary. These include Cross dressers, drag queens, drag kings, transvestites, genderqueer, etc.

Some transsexuals also take issue with the term because Charles "Virginia" Prince, the founder of the cross-dressing organization Tri-Ess and coiner of the term "transgender",^[22] took those actions because she wished to distinguish herself from transsexual people. In "Men Who Choose to Be Women," Prince wrote "I, at least, know the difference between sex and gender and have simply elected to change the latter and not the former".^[8] There is a substantial academic literature on the difference between sex and gender, but in pragmatic English, this distinction is often ignored, so that "gender" is used to describe the categorical male/female difference and "sex" is used to describe the physical act of sexual intercourse.

There is political tension between the identities that fall under the "transgender umbrella". For example, transsexual men and women who can pay for medical treatments (or who have institutional coverage for their treatment) are likely to be concerned with medical privacy and establishing a durable legal status as men and women later in life. Extending insurance coverage for medical care is a coherent issue in the intersection of transsexuality and economic class. Most of these issues can appeal even to conservatives, if framed in terms of an unusual sort of "maintenance" of traditional notions of gender for rare people who feel the need for medical treatments. Some trans people might express this by saying, "I don't challenge the gender binary. I just started out on the wrong side of it.”

Transgender identities

Albert Cashier, a trans man who served as a soldier in the US civil war.

While people self-identify as transgender, transgender identity includes many overlapping categories. These include cross-dresser (CD); transvestite (TV); androgynes; genderqueer; people who live cross-gender; drag kings; and drag queens; and, frequently, transsexual (TS). Usually not included are transvestic fetishists (because it is considered to be a paraphilia rather than gender identification). In an interview, artist RuPaul talked about society's ambivalence to the differences in the people who embody these terms. "A friend of mine recently did the Oprah show about transgender youth," said RuPaul. "It was obvious that we, as a culture, have a hard time trying to understand the difference between a drag queen, transsexual, and a transgender [person], yet we find it very easy to know the difference between the American baseball league and the National baseball league, when they are both so similar." These terms are explained below.

The current definitions of transgender include all transsexual people, although this has been criticized. (See below.) Intersex people have genitalia or other physical sexual characteristics that do not conform to strict definitions of male and/or female, but intersex people are not necessarily transgender, since they do not all disagree with their assigned sex at birth. Transgender and intersex issues often overlap, however, because they both challenge the notion of rigid definitions of sex and gender.

The term trans man refers to female-to-male (FtM or F2M) transgender people, and trans woman refers to male-to-female (MtF or M2F) transgender people. In the past, it was assumed that there were more trans women than trans men, but a Swedish study estimated a ratio of 1.4:1 in favour of trans women for those requesting sex reassignment surgery and a ratio of 1:1 for those who proceeded.

The term cisgender has been coined as an antonym referring to non-transgender people; i.e. those who identify with their gender assigned at birth.

When referring to a transgender person, it is respectful to always use that person's preferred name and pronoun regardless of their legal gender status (as not all transgender people can afford surgery or other body modifications). The word "transgender" should be used as an adjective rather than a noun — for example, "Max is transgender" or "Max is a transgender man" rather than "Max is a transgender."

Transvestite

Main article: Transvestism

A transvestite is somebody who cross-dressesThe term "transvestite" is used as a synonym for the term "cross-dresser", although "cross-dresser" is generally considered the preferred term. The term "transvestite" and the associated outdated term "transvestism" are conceptually different from the term "fetishistic transvestism" (a.k.a. "transvestic fetishism"), as "transvestic fetishist" describes those who intermittently use clothing of the opposite gender for fetishistic purposes. In medical terms, transvestic fetishism is differentiated from cross-dressing by use of the separate codes 302.3 in the DSM and F65.1in the ICD.

Drag kings and queens

See also: Drag king, Drag queen, and Faux queen

New York City drag king Murray Hill with drag queen Linda Simpson.

Drag is a term applied to clothing and make-up worn on special occasions for performing or entertaining as a hostess, stage artist or at an event (e.g. Lypsinka). This is in contrast to those who cross-dress for other reasons or who are transgender. Drag performance also includes overall presentation and behavior in addition to clothing and makeup. Drag can be theatrical, comedic, or grotesque, and female-identified drag has been considered a caricature of women by second-wave feminism. Within the genre of drag are gender illusionists who do try to pass as another gender. Drag artists explore gender issues and have a long tradition in LGBT culture. Generally the terms drag queen covers men doing female drag, drag king covers women doing male drag, and faux queen covers women doing female drag. Nevertheless, there are drag artists of all genders and sexualities who perform for various reasons.

Genderqueer

Genderqueer is a recent attempt to signify gender experiences that do not fit into binary concepts, and refers to a combination of gender identities and sexual orientations. One example could be a person whose gender presentation is sometimes perceived as male, sometimes female, but whose gender identity is female, gender expression is butch, and sexual orientation is lesbian. It suggests nonconformity or mixing of gender stereotypes, conjoining both gender and sexuality, and challenges existing constructions and identities In the binary sex/gender system, genderqueerness is unintelligible and abjected.

People who live cross-gender

People who live cross-gender live always or mostly as the gender other than that assigned at birth. If they want to be or identify as their gender assigned at birth, then the term "crossdresser" may be used. If they want to be or identify as the gender they always or mostly live in, then the term "transsexual" may be used. The term "transgender" or "transgenderist" has been applied to people who live cross-gender without sex reassignment surgery.

Androgyne

Main article: Androgyny

An androgyne is a person who does not fit cleanly into the typical gender roles of their society. It does not imply any specific form of sexual orientation. Androgynes may identify as beyond gender, between genders, moving across genders, entirely genderless, or any or all of these, exhbiting a variety of male, female, and other characteristics. Androgyne identities include pangender, ambigender, non-gendered, agender, Gender fluid or intergender. Androgyny can be either physical or psychological, and it does not depend on birth sex. Occasionally, people who do not define themselves as androgynes adapt their physical appearance to look androgynous. This outward androgyny has been used in fashion, and the milder forms of it (women wearing men's pants or men wearing two earrings, for example) are not seen as transgender behavior.

The term androgyne is also sometimes used as a medical synonym for an intersex individual.

Bigender

A bigender (sometimes rendered as bi-gender or bi+gender) individual is one who moves between masculine and feminine gender roles. Such individuals move between two distinct personalities fluidly depending on context. While an androgynous person retains the same gender-typed behaviour across situations, the bigendered person consciously or unconsciously changes their gender-role behaviour from primarily masculine to primarily feminine, or vice versa.

Transgender people and feminism

Main article: Transfeminism

Some feminists and feminist groups are supportive of transgender people. Others are not.

Though second-wave feminism argued for the sex and gender distinction, some feminists believed there was a conflict between transgender identity and the feminist cause. These feminists believed, for example, that male-to-female transition abandoned or devalued female identity, and that trangender people embraced traditional gender roles and stereotypes. Many transgender feminists, however, viewed themselves as contributing positively to feminism by questioning and subverting gender norms. Third wave and contemporary feminism have tended to be more accepting of transgender people.

Feminist writer Janice Raymond asserts that sex determines gender, and that there is no practical difference between the two. In her view, genitalia or "birth sex" or chromosomes deeply and permanently determine one's essential identity as a woman or man; trying to violate this divide is impossible, unnatural, and unhealthy. She argues that while transpeople may claim to feel like a certain gender, only a biological female can genuinely feel what it is to occupy a woman's body, including having experiences such as childbirth.

Transgender healthcare

Therapy is recommended by most mental health professionals for those who suffer from internal conflicts regarding their gender identity or those who feel discomfort in their assigned gender role, especially if they desire to transition. People who experience discord between their gender and the expectations of others or whose gender identity conflicts with their body may benefit by talking through their feelings in depth with someone who will listen attentively. However, research on gender identity is relatively new to psychology and scientific understanding of it and related issues is still in its infancy.

Transgender people may be eligible for diagnosis of gender identity disorder (GID) "only if [being transgender] causes distress or disability." This distress is referred to as gender dysphoria and may manifest as depression or inability to work and form healthy relationships with others. This diagnosis is often misinterpreted as implying that simply being transgender means a person suffers from GID, which is not the case. This has caused much confusion to transgender people and those who seek to either criticize or affirm them. Transgender people who are comfortable with their gender, whose gender does not directly cause inner frustration or impair their functioning, do not suffer from GID. Moreover, GID is not necessarily permanent, and is often resolved through therapy and/or transitioning. GID does not refer to people who feel oppressed by the negative attitudes and behaviors or others including legal entities in the same way that racist institutions do not create a "race disorder." Neither does GID imply an opinion of immorality; the psychological establishment holds the position that people with any kind of mental or emotional problem should not receive stigma. The solution for GID is whatever will alleviate suffering and restore functionality; this often, but not always, consists of undergoing a gender transition.

The terms "transsexualism", "dual-role transvestism", "gender identity disorder in adolescents or adults" and "gender identity disorder not otherwise specified" are listed as such in the International Statistical Classification of Diseases (ICD) or the American Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM) under codes F64.0, F64.1, 302.85 and 302.6 respectively.

In February 2010, France became the first country in the world to remove transgender identity from the list of mental diseases.

The issues around psychological classifications and associated stigma (whether based in paraphilia or not) of cross dressers, transsexual men and women (and for that matter lesbian and gay children who may be difficult to tell apart from trans children early in life) have recently become more complex since it was announced that CAMH colleagues Kenneth Zucker and Ray Blanchard would serve on the DSM-V's Sexual and Gender Identity Disorders Work Group . CAMH aims to 'cure' transgender people of their 'disorder', especially in children. Within the trans community, this has mostly produced shock and outrage with attempts to organize other responses.

One of the reasons there is so much controversy about Kenneth Zucker and Ray Blanchard's work group is that many people believe that gender identity disorders/homosexuality are incurable as they are genetic and/or occur as a result of events occurring before birth (therefore already "solidified" by the time of birth). If this is the case, then trying to 'cure' said condition(s) could lead (and in some individuals already has led) to increased confusion, more intense dysphoria later in life, and perhaps even suicide (likely due to the fact that the younger the transgender individual, the greater the effect of hormones). While some cases of individuals partaking in these sessions seem to show success, the long term repercussions (if any) of some of these individuals being 'cured' have not yet been observed, due to an indefinite amount of time before negative reactions could possibly occur.

Transgender issues are both new in the scientific field and affect relatively few people, so many mental healthcare providers know little about transgender issues. People seeking help from these professionals often end up educating the professional rather than receiving help. Among those therapists who profess to know about transgender issues, many believe that transitioning from one sex to another – the standard transsexual model – is the best or only solution. This usually works well for those who are transsexual, but is not the solution for other transgender people, particularly genderqueer people who do not identify as exclusively male or female.

Physical healthcare

Medical and surgical procedures exist for transsexual and some transgender people. (Most categories of transgender people as described above are not known for seeking the following treatments.) Hormone replacement therapy for trans men induces beard growth and masculinises skin, hair, voice and fat distribution. Hormone replacement therapy for trans women feminises fat distribution and breasts. Laser hair removal or electrolysis removes excess hair for trans women. Surgical procedures for trans women feminise the voice, skin, face, adam's apple, breasts, waist, buttocks and genitals. Surgical procedures for trans men masculinise the chest and genitals and remove the womb and ovaries and fallopian tubes. The acronyms "GRS" and "SRS" refer to genital surgery. The term "sex reassignment therapy" (SRT) is used as an umbrella term for physical procedures required for transition. Use of the term "sex change" has been criticized for its emphasis on surgery, and the term "transition" is preferred Availability of these procedures depends on degree of gender dysphoria, presence or absence of gender identity disorder, and standards of care in the relevant jurisdiction.

Transgender people and the law

Dr. Camille Cabral, a transgender activist at a demonstration for transgender people in Paris, October 1, 2005

Main article: Legal aspects of transsexualism

Legal procedures exist in some jurisdictions allowing individuals to change their legal gender, or their name, to reflect their gender identity. Requirements for these procedures vary from an explicit formal diagnosis of transsexualism, to a diagnosis of gender identity disorder, to a letter from a physician attesting to the individual's gender transition, or the fact that one has established a different gender role. In 1994, the DSM IV entry was changed from "Transsexual" to "Gender Identity Disorder." In many places, transgender people are not legally protected from discrimination in the workplace or in public accommodations. A report released in February 2011 found that 90% of transgender people faced discrimination at work, and were unemployed at double the rate of the general population. Over half had been harassed or turned away when attempting to access public services. Members of the transgender community also encounter high levels of discrimination in health care on an everyday basis.

In Canada, a private members bill protecting the rights of freedom of gender expression and gender identity passed in the House of Commons on February 9, 2011. It amends the Canada Human Rights code to help protect gender-variant people from discrimination by including gender identity and expression in the list of prohibited grounds for discrimination, as well as including gender identity and expression in the description of identifiable group, so that offences deliberately against gender-variant people can be punished to a similar extent as a racial-based crime. It is uncertain whether the bill will be passed by the Senate.

In the U.S., a federal bill to protect workers from discrimination based on sexual orientation and gender identity – called the Employment Non-Discrimination Act – has stalled and failed several times over the past two decades Still, individual states and cities have begun passing their own non-discrimination ordinances. In New York, for example, Governor David Paterson passed the first legislation to include transgender protections in September 2010.

Transgender people and religion

The world's religions display great diversity and their interpretations of and reactions to transgender people demonstrate equal diversity. Even within one specific religion, Christianity, different groups have very different interpretations of gender identity and socio-cultural gender roles as well as very different attitudes toward and reactions to transgender people (see the main article on this topic). More generally the scriptures of Abrahamic religions include both texts sometimes interpreted as condemning transgender persons as well as texts sometimes interpreted as challenging conservative views of gender and of the possibilities open to transgender people, as well as offering them encouragement, support and hope.

Transgender people in non-Western cultures

Nong Tum, a Kathoey internationally recognized for her portrayal in the film Beautiful Boxer.

Asia

In Thailand and Laos, the term kathoey is used to refer to male-to-female transgender people and effeminate gay men. The cultures of the Indian subcontinent include a third gender, referred to as hijrain Hindi. Transgender people also have been documented in Iran, Japan, Nepal, Indonesia, Vietnam, South Korea, Singapore, and the greater Chinese region, including Hong Kong,^[138][139] Taiwan, and the People's Republic of China.

North America

In what is now the United States and Canada, many Native American and First Nations peoples recognised the existence of more than two genders, such as the Zuñi male-bodied Ła'mana, the Lakota male-bodied winkte and the Mohave male-bodied alyhaa and female-bodied hwamee. Such people were previously referred to as berdache but are now referred to as Two-Spirit, and their spouses would not necessarily have been regarded as gender-different. In Mexico, the Zapotec culture includes a third gender in the form of the Muxe.

Other

In early Medina, gender-variant male-to-female Islamic people were acknowledged in the form of the Mukhannathun. In Ancient Rome, the Gallae were castrated followers of the Phrygian goddess Cybele and can be regarded as transgender in today's terms.

Among the ancient Middle Eastern Akkadian people, a salzikrum was a person who appeared biologically female but had distinct male traits. Salzikrum is a compound word meaning male daughter. According to the Code of Hammurabi, salzikrūm had inheritance rights like that of priestesses; they inherited from their fathers, unlike regular daughters. A salzikrum's father could also stipulate that she inherit a certain amount.

Mahu is a traditional status in Polynesian cultures. Also, in Fa'asamoa traditions, the Samoan culture allows a specific role for male to female transgender individuals as Fa'afafine.